Cessna 172

Cessna 172

The Cessna 172 Skyhawk is a four-seat, single-engine, high-wing airplane.
More Cessna 172s have been built than any other aircraft. It is probably the most popular flight training aircraft in the world.
Design and developmentMeasured by its longevity and popularity, the Cessna 172 is the most successful mass produced light aircraft in history. The first production models were delivered in 1956 and they are still in production as of 2008; more than 43,000 have been built. The Skyhawk's main competitors have been the Beechcraft Musketeer and Grumman AA-5 series (neither in production), the Piper Cherokee and, more recently, the Diamond DA40.
The Cessna 172 started life as a tricycle landing gear upgrade from the taildragger Cessna 170, with a basic level of standard equipment. The first flight of the prototype was in November 1955. The 172 became an overnight sales success and over 1400 were built in 1956, its first full year of production.
Early 172s were similar in appearance to the 170, with the same straight aft fuselage and tall gear legs, although the 172 had a straight vertical tail while the 170 had a rounded fin and rudder. Later 172 versions incorporated revised landing gear and a lowered rear deck that allowed an aft window. Cessna advertised this added rear visibility as "Omni-Vision". The final aesthetic development in the mid-1960s, was the sweptback tail which is still in use today. This airframe configuration has remained almost unchanged since then, except for updates in avionics and engines, including the Garmin G1000 glass cockpit in 2005. Production had been halted in the mid-1980s, but was resumed in 1996 with the 160 hp (120 kW) Cessna 172R Skyhawk and was supplemented in 1998 by the 180 hp (135 kW) Cessna 172S Skyhawk SP.

Airbus A400M

Airbus A400M

The Airbus A400M is a four-engine turboprop military transport & tanker, designed by Airbus Military. Its maiden flight is scheduled for July 2008.
The project began as the Future International Military Airlifter (FIMA) group, set up in 1982 by Aerospatiale, British Aerospace, Lockheed, and MBB to develop a replacement for the C-130 Hercules and C-160 Transall. Varying requirements and the complications of international politics caused slow progress. In 1989 Lockheed left the grouping and went on to develop an upgraded Hercules, the C-130J. With the addition of Alenia and CASA the FIMA group became Euroflag.
The partner nations, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom, Turkey, Belgium, and Luxembourg, signed an agreement in May 2003 to buy 212 aircraft. These nations decided to charge OCCAR with the management of the acquisition of the A400M.
Following the withdrawal of Italy and revision of procurement totals the revised requirement was for 180 aircraft, with first flight in 2008 and first delivery in 2009. On 28 April 2005, South Africa joined the partnership programme with the state owned Denel Aerospace Systems receiving a contract for fuselage components.
The Airbus A400M will increase the airlift capacity and range compared to the aircraft it was originally set to replace, the older versions of the Hercules and Transall. Cargo capacity is expected to double over existing aircraft, both in payload and volume, and range is increased substantially as well. Like Airbus' other aircraft, the A400M will have a full glass cockpit (all information accessed through large colour screens) and fly-by-wire and as such will represent a technological leap compared to the older C-130s and C-160s that many countries now operate.
The Airbus A400M will operate in many configurations including cargo transport, troop transport, MEDEVAC, aerial refuelling, and electronic surveillance.
Originally the SNECMA M138 turboprop (based on the M88 core) was selected to power the A400M. Airbus Military issued a new Request for Proposal in April 2002 which Pratt & Whitney Canada and Europrop answered. Although industry sources indicated the P&WC proposal was the winning bid Airbus Military announced, after evaluating both designs, the selection of the Europrop TP400-D6 in May 2003.
The A400M's wings are primarily carbon fibre reinforced plastic. The cockpit features a fly-by-wire flight control system with sidestick controllers and flight envelope protection. High performance turboprop engines will allow operation in a civil air traffic control environment.

Airbus A350

Airbus A350

The Airbus A350 is a long range, mid-sized, wide-body family of airliners currently under development, designed to compete with the Boeing 777 and Boeing 787. The A350 will be the first Airbus with fuselage and wing structures made primarily of carbon fiber reinforced plastic. It is scheduled to enter into service in 2013.
When Boeing announced its 787 Dreamliner project, it claimed the lower operating costs of this airplane would make it a serious threat to the Airbus A330. Publicly, Airbus initially rejected this claim, stating that the 787 was itself just a reaction to the A330, and that no response was needed to the 787.
The airlines pushed Airbus to provide a competitor, as Boeing had committed the 787 to have 20% lower fuel consumption than today's equivalent types. Initially Airbus proposed a simple derivative of the A330, unofficially dubbed the 'A330-200Lite', with improved aerodynamics and engines similar to those on the 787. The airlines were not satisfied and Airbus committed €4 billion to a new design to be called the A350. The original version of the A350 superficially resembled the A330 due to its common fuselage cross-section and assembly. A new wing, engines and a horizontal stabilizer were to be coupled with new composite materials and production methods applied to the fuselage to make the A350 an almost all-new aircraft.
On 16 September 2004, then Airbus president and CEO Noël Forgeard confirmed that a new project was under consideration, but did not give a project name, and would not state whether it would be an entirely new design or a modification of an existing product. Forgeard indicated that Airbus would finalise its concept by the end of 2004, begin consulting with airlines in early 2005, and aim to launch the new development programme at the end of that year.
On 10 December 2004 the boards of EADS and BAE Systems, then the shareholders of Airbus, gave Airbus an "authorisation to offer (ATO)", and formally named it the A350.
On 6 October 2005 full industrial launch of the program was announced with an estimated development cost of around € 3.5 billion. This version of the A350 was planned to be a 250–300-seat twin-engined wide-body aircraft derived from the design of the existing A330. Under this plan, the A350 would have modified wings and new engines while sharing the same fuselage cross-section as its predecessor. Controversially, the fuselage was to consist primarily of Al-Li, rather than the CFRP fuselage on the 787. It was to see entry into service in 2010 in two versions; the A350-800 capable of flying 8,800 nautical miles (16,300 km) with typical passenger capacity of 253 in 3-class configuration and the 300-seat (3-class) A350-900 with 7,500 nautical mile (13,890 km) range. It was designed to be a direct competitor to the 787-9, and 777-200ER.
Almost immediately Airbus faced criticism on the A350 project by the heads of two of its largest customers, ILFC and GECAS. On 28 March 2006, in the presence of hundreds of top airline executives, Steven F. Udvar-Hazy, of ILFC lambasted Airbus' strategy in bringing to market what they saw as "a Band-aid reaction to the 787," a sentiment which was echoed by GECAS president Henry Hubschman. Udvar-Hazy called on Airbus to bring a clean-sheet design to the table, or risk losing most of the market to Boeing.
Several days later, similar comments were made by Chew Choon Seng, CEO of Singapore Airlines. Chew stated, "having gone to the trouble of designing a new wing, tail, cockpit" and adding advanced new materials, Airbus "should have gone the whole hog and designed a new fuselage." At the time, Singapore was reviewing bids for the 787 and A350.
Airbus responded by stating it was considering improvements for the A350 to satisfy customer demands.At the same time, Airbus then-CEO Gustav Humbert suggested that there would be no quick fixes, stating, "Our strategy isn't driven by the needs of the next one or two campaigns, but rather by a long-term view of the market and our ability to deliver on our promises."
On 14 June 2006, Singapore Airlines announced it had selected the 787 over the A350, ordering 20 787-9s.Emirates Airline decided against making an order for the initial version of the A350 because of weaknesses in the design.

Airbus A310

Airbus A310

The Airbus A310 is a medium to long-range widebody airliner. Launched in 1978, it was the second aircraft created by the Airbus consortium of European aerospace companies, which is now fully owned by EADS. The A310 is a shortened derivative of the A300, the first twin-engined widebody airliner. The A310 (along with the A300) ceased production in July 2007. Freighter sales for which the A310 competed are to be fulfilled by a new A330-200F derivative.
The A310's range exceeds that of all the A300 models, except for the A300-600, which surpases the A310-200. This feature has led to the aircraft being used extensively on transatlantic routes. The A300 and A310 introduced the concept of commonality: A300-600 and A310 pilots can qualify for the other aircraft with one day of training.
Like its sister aircraft, the A300, the A310 has reached the end of its market life as a passenger and cargo aircraft. There have been no new A310 passenger orders since the late 1990s, and only a few freighter orders remain. The A310 (along with the A300) ceased production in July of 2007, though five orders from Iraqi Airways remain on the books. The remaining freighter sales are to be fulfilled by the new A330-200F derivative.
The aircraft was formally launched in July 1978 for Lufthansa and Swissair. A further development of the A300, the aircraft was initially designated the A300 B10. Essentially a "baby" A300, the main differences in the two aircraft are
Shortened fuselage - same cross section, providing capacity of about 200. Redesigned wing - designed by British Aerospace who rejoined Airbus consortium Smaller vertical fin The A310 was marketed as an introduction to widebody operations for developing airlines. The A310 was replaced in Airbus' lineup by the highly successful A330-200, which shares its fuselage cross-section. Between 1983 and the very last aircraft produced 1998, 255 A310s were delivered by Airbus.
The A300 and A310 established Airbus as a competitor to Boeing and allowed it to go ahead with the more ambitious A320 and A330/A340 families.

Airbus A300

Airbus A300

The Airbus A300 is a short- to medium-range widebody
aircraft. Launched in 1972 as the world's first twin-engined
widebody, it was the first product of the Airbus consortium
of European aerospace companies, wholly owned today by EADS.
The A300 ceased production in July 2007, along with the
smaller A310. Freighter sales for which the A300 competed are to be fulfilled by a new A330-200F derivativeDevelopment historyThe mission requirements were given in 1966 by Frank Kolk, an American Airlines executive, for a Boeing 727 replacement on busy short- to medium-range routes such as US transcontinental flights. His brief included a passenger capacity of 250 to 300 seated in a twin-aisle configuration and fitted with two engines, with the capability of carrying full passengers without penalty from high-altitude airports like Denver. American manufacturers responded with widebody trijets, the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and the Lockheed L-1011 Tristar, as twinjets were banned from many routes by the
FAA.French president Charles de Gaulle resented the US domination of civil aviation and wanted a European airliner that could compete with American designs.[citation needed] Concorde was part of the answer, designed for intercontinental routes; the other was the A300, designed to
meet Kolk's US domestic requirements.
In September 1967, the British, French, and German governments signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) tostart development of the 300-seat Airbus A300. An earlier
announcement had been made in July 1967, but at that time the announcement had been clouded by the British Government's support for the Airbus, which coincided with
its refusal to back British Aircraft Corporation's (BAC) proposed competitor, a development of the BAC 1-11 — despite a preference for the latter expressed by British European
Airways (BEA).In the months following this agreement, both the French and
British governments expressed doubts about the aircraft. Another problem was the requirement for a new engine to be developed by Rolls-Royce, the RB207. In December 1968, the
French and British partner companies (Sud Aviation and Hawker Siddeley) proposed a revised configuration, the 250-seat Airbus A250. Renamed the A300B, the aircraft would
not require new engines, reducing development costs. To attract potential US customers, American General Electric CF6-50 engines powered the A300 instead of the British
RB207. The British government was upset and withdrew from the venture; however, the British firm Hawker-Siddeley stayed on as a contractor, developing the wings for the
A300, which were pivotal in later versions' impressive performance from short domestic to long intercontinental flights.[citation needed] (Years later, through British
Aerospace, the UK re-entered the consortium.) Airbus Industrie was formally set up in 1970 following an agreement between Aérospatiale (France), the antecedents to Deutsche Aerospace (Germany) (joined by CASA of Spain in 1971). Each company would deliver its sections as fully
equipped, ready-to-fly items.In 1972 the A300 made its maiden flight. The first
production model, the A300B2, entered service in 1974. Initially the success of the consortium was poor, but by 1979 there were 81 aircraft in service. It was the launch of
the A320 in 1981 that established Airbus as a major player in the aircraft market — the aircraft had over 400 orders before it first flew, compared to 15 for the A300 in 1972.
The A300 was the first airliner to use just-in-time manufacturing techniques. Complete aircraft sections were manufactured by consortium partners all over Europe. These
were airlifted to the final assembly line at Toulouse-Blagnac by a fleet of Boeing 377-derived Aero Spacelines Super Guppy aircraft. Originally devised as a way
to share the work among Airbus's partners without the expense of two assembly lines, it turned out to be a more efficient way of building airplanes (more flexible and
reduced costs) as opposed to building the whole airplane at one site. This fact was not lost on Boeing, which, over thirty years later, decided to manufacture the Boeing 787 in
this manner, using outsized 747s to ferry wings and other parts from Japan.
The A300 cemented European cooperation in aviation. Its first flight was commemorated on a French three franc stamp.

Boieng 767

Boieng 767

Design and developmentThe Boeing 767, a wide-body jet, was introduced at around the same time as the 757, its narrowbody sister, in 1981-1982. Prior to production, it was referred to as the 7X7. With the 707 aging, Boeing decided to offer a mid-size aircraft to fit in between the 727/737/757 and the 747. The 767 has a fuselage width of 15 ft 6 in (472.44 cm) that is midway between the two other aircraft.
Planform view of a British Airways Boeing 767-300 after take off. The undercarriages have retracted.The 767 was designed using engines used on the 747 with wings sized to match. The wings were larger and provided longer range than the initial customers wanted. However, the larger wings only increased fuel usage slightly and provided better takeoff and landing performance. Boeing designed the 767 with enough range to fly across North America and across the north Atlantic.
The 767 has an outer fuselage diameter of just 198 inches, narrower than most other wide-body airliners. On the upside, this offers a twin aisle configuration of 2+3+2 in economy with the most common business configuration of 2+2+2. It is possible in some charter configurations to squeeze an extra seat for a 2+4+2 configuration, however the seats are very narrow and this is not common. The 767 has a seat-to-aisle ratio in economy class of an efficient 3.5 seats per aisle, making for quicker food service and quicker exit of the plane than many other jetliners, which typically have between four and six seats per aisle in economy class.
On the downside, the relatively narrow fuselage means that the 767 cannot carry freight in Unit Load Devices which are standard in practically all other wide-body jets: namely, LD6s, LD11s, and (unless with significant fuselage space wastages) LD3s. Instead the smaller LD2s and LD8s are specially designed for use by the 767. Indeed, one of the design requirements of the 767's replacement, the Boeing 787, was for it to use the LD3/6/11 family of ULDs to solve the wasted volume issue.
British Airways Boeing 767-300The flight decks of the Boeing 757 and 767 are very similar and as a result, after a short conversion course, pilots rated in the 757 are also qualified to fly the 767 and vice versa. The 767 was approved for U.S. CAT IIIb operation in March 1984. This revision permitted operations with minimums as low as RVR 300 (Runway Visual Range 300 feet). It was the first aircraft certificated for CAT IIIb by the U.S.[5]
Newer 767-200s and 767-300s, as well as all 767-400ERs, feature a 777-style cabin interior, also known as the "Boeing Signature Interior". The 767-400ER also features larger windows exactly like those found on the 777. All new 767s built feature the Signature Interior, and it is also available as a retrofit for older 767s.
In the late 1980s, Boeing proposed a stretched version of the 767, and then a partial double deck version with parts of a 757 fuselage built over the aft (rear) fuselage.[6][7] These concepts were not accepted and Boeing shifted to an all new airliner that would become the 777.[8] Boeing would later develop a stretched 767 version in the form of the 767-400ER in the late 1990s.
In addition to the Boeing Signature Interior retrofit option, a simpler mod known as the "Boeing 767 Enhanced Interior" is available. This retrofit borrows styling elements from the Boeing Signature Interior; however, the outer section overhead bins are traditional-style shelf bins rather than the 777-style pivot bins.
US Airways 767-200ER cockpit after landingThe 767 sold very well in from late 1980s to the late 1990s, with a decrease during the recession in the early 1990s. After strong sales in 1997, sales have declined significantly, due to the economic recession of the early 2000s, increased competition from Airbus, and the recent emergence of a direct replacement program, the Boeing 787. Boeing has kept the line open due to KC-767 tanker program, which use the 767 airframe. In early 2007, United Parcel Service and DHL have prolonged the 767's production with orders for 767-300 freighters of 27 and 6, respectively.[1][2]
The renewed interest in the 767-300 freighter has Boeing considering enhanced versions of the 767-200 and 767-300 freighter, with increased gross weights, 767-400ER wing technology, and 777-200 avionics.[3] Boeing sees the advanced 767-200F and 767-300F as complementing the 777F, and allowing Boeing to compete more effectively against the A330-200F, which is larger than the proposed 767-200F and 767-300F, but smaller than the 777F.
As of July 2007, the Boeing 767 has 1011 orders, with 953 of those delivered. Delta Air Lines is currently the world's largest 767 operator, with approximately 102 planes, including the 767-300, 767-300ER, and 767-400ER. Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport, their hub, has the highest number of Boeing 767 operations in the world.

Boieng 777

Boieng 777

The Boeing 777 is an American long-range, wide-body twin-engine airliner built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. The world's largest twinjet and commonly referred to as the Triple Seven, it can carry between 283 and 368 passengers in a three-class configuration and has a range from 5,235 to 9,450 nautical miles (9,695 to 17,500 km). Distinguishing features of the 777 include the six wheels on each main landing gear, its circular fuselage cross section, the largest diameter turbofan engines of any aircraft, the pronounced "neck" aft of the cockpit, and the blade-like tail cone.
Singapore Airlines is the largest operator of the Boeing 777 family with 69 in service (46 are the 777-200ER variant, 12 are 777-300s, and 11 are 777-300ERs with 8 on firm order and 13 more on option). As of February 2008, 53 customers have placed orders totaling 1,050 777s.
Direct market competitors to the 777 are the Airbus A330-300, A340, and some models of the A350 XWB, which is currently under development. The 777 may eventually be replaced by a new product family, the Boeing Y3, which would draw upon technologies from the 787. The Y3 may also replace the Boeing 747 series.
Design phase the mid-1980s Boeing produced proposals for an enlarged 767, dubbed 767X. There were also a number of in-house designations for proposals, of which the 763-246 was one internal designation that was mentioned in public. The 767X had a longer fuselage and larger wings than the existing 767, and seated about 340 passengers with a maximum range of 7,300 nautical miles (13,500 kilometers). The airlines were unimpressed with the 767X: they wanted short to intercontinental range capability, a bigger cabin cross section, a fully flexible cabin configuration and an operating cost lower than any 767 stretch. By 1988 Boeing realized that the only answer was a new design, the 777 twinjet.
Designing of the 777 was different from previous Boeing jetliners. For the first time, eight major airlines (Cathay Pacific, American, Delta, ANA, BA, JAL, Qantas, and United) had a role in the development of the plane as part of a "Working Together" collaborative model employed for the 777 project.At the first "Working Together" meeting in January 1990, a 23-page questionnaire was distributed to the airlines, asking each what it wanted in the new design. By March 1990 a basic design for the 767X had been decided upon; a cabin cross-section close to the 747s, 325 passengers, fly-by-wire controls, glass cockpit, flexible interior, and 10% better seat-mile costs than the A330 and MD-11. ETOPS was also a priority for United Airlines.
All software, whether produced internally to Boeing or externally, was to be written in Ada. The bulk of the work was undertaken by Honeywell who developed a Airplane Information Management System (AIMS). This handles the flight and navigation displays, systems monitoring and data acquisition (eg flight data acquisition).
United's replacement program for its aging DC-10s became a focus for Boeing's designs. The new aircraft needed to be capable for flying three different routes; Chicago to Hawaii, Chicago to Europe and non-stop from the hot and high Denver to Hawaii.
In October 1990, United Airlines became the launch customer when it placed an order for 34 Pratt & Whitney-powered 777s with options on a further 34. Production of the first aircraft began in January 1993 at Boeing's Everett plant near Seattle. In the same month, the 767X was officially renamed the 777, and a team of United 777 developers joined other airline teams and the Boeing team at the Boeing Everett Factory. Divided into 240 design teams of up to 40 members, working on individual components of the aircraft, almost 1,500 design issues were addressed.
The 777 was the first commercial aircraft to be designed entirely on computer. Everything was created on a 3D CAD software system known as CATIA, sourced from Dassault Systemes. This allowed a virtual 777 to be assembled, in simulation, to check for interferences and to verify proper fit of the many thousands of parts before costly physical prototypes were manufactured. Boeing was not totally convinced of the abilities of the program, and built a mock-up of the nose section to test the results. It was so successful that all further mock-ups were canceled.

Austin Ball A.F.B1

Austin Ball A.F.B1

The Austin-Ball A.F.B.1 was a British fighter plane of World War I built by car manufacturer Austin with input from Britain's leading fighter ace at the time, Albert Ball. It was a two-bay biplane of largely conventional configuration with unstaggered, equal-span wings. The top wing was attached to the upper fuselage, granting the pilot excellent visibility on all sides and above. The armament was ususual: the fixed, forward-firing Lewis gun fired through the hollow propeller shaft; but its muzzle was located aft of the powerplant. A second Lewis gun with an upwards firing arc was mounted on the upper wing. This weapon, combined with the excellent topside visibility was well-suited to Ball's favoured method of attack, from below the enemy.
Only a single prototype was built. Although the fighter promised excellent performance, the SE.5a was already in production, and the A.F.B.1 would have competed with it for production facilities (Austin was a major SE.5a contractor) and engines (since both fighters used the Hispano-Suiza 8). Moreover, Ball had already been killed in action by the time the aircraft was ready for its first flight.
General characteristicsCrew: 1 Length: 21 ft 6 in (6.55 m) Wingspan: 30 ft (9.14 m) Height: 9 ft 3 in (2.84 m) Wing area: 290 ft2 (26.9 m2) Empty weight: 1,525 lb (693 kg) Loaded weight: 2,077 lb (942 kg) Powerplant: 1× Hispano-Suiza 8 V-8, 200 hp (150 kW)
PerformanceMaximum speed: 138 mph (222 km/h) (222 km/h) Service ceiling 22,000 ft (6,700 m) Rate of climb: 1,120 ft/min (5.7 m/s)
Armament1 × fixed, forward-firing .303 Lewis gun 1 × hinged upward-firing .303 Lewis gun

De Havilland Comet

De Havilland Comet

The de Havilland Comet was the world's first commercial jet airliner to reach production. Developed and manufactured by de Havilland, it first flew in 1949 and was considered a landmark British aeronautical design. After a successful introduction into commercial service, early Comet models suffered from catastrophic metal fatigue, causing a string of well-publicised accidents.
The Comet was withdrawn temporarily and redesigned. The Comet 4 series subsequently enjoyed a long and productive career of over 30 years, although sales never fully recovered. The Hawker Siddeley Nimrod, the military derivative of the Comet airliner, is still in service. The original decades-old airframes are being rebuilt with new wings and engines to produce the Nimrod MRA 4, expected to serve with Britain's Royal Air Force until the 2020s, more than 70 years after the Comet's first flight.
The Comet is an all-metal low-wing cantilever monoplane powered by four jet engines, approximately the length of a Boeing 737 but carrying fewer people in greater comfort. The earliest Comets had 11 rows of seats with four seats to a row in the 1A configuration used by Air France. BOAC used an even roomier arrangement of 36 seats (each with its own ashtray). The galley could serve hot and cold food and drinks and there was a bar. Other amenities included separate men's and women's washrooms. The passenger cabin was quieter than those of propeller-driven airliners. The Comet's four-man cockpit held two pilots, a flight engineer, and a navigator.
The clean, low-drag design featured many unique or innovative design elements, including a swept leading edge, integral wing fuel tanks and four-wheel bogie main undercarriage units designed by de Havilland. The Comet was also the first pressurised jet-propelled commercial aircraft. For emergencies, life rafts were stored in the wings near the engines and a life vest was stowed under each seat bottom.
Two pairs of de Havilland Ghost 50 Mk1 turbojet engines were buried in the wings close to the fuselage. British designers chose this configuration because it avoided the drag of podded engines and allowed a smaller fin and rudder, since the hazards of asymmetric thrust were reduced. The engines' higher mounting in the wings also reduced the risk of ingestion damage, a major problem for turbine engines. However, these benefits were compromised by increased structural weight and general complexity, including armour for the engine cells (in case of an engine explosion) and a more complicated wing structure. This arrangement also carried higher risk of catastrophic wing failure in case of an engine fire, cited as the main reason the Boeing Aircraft Company chose podded engines in their subsequent jet bomber and airliner designs.
The Comet was originally intended to have two hydrogen peroxide powered de Havilland Sprite booster rockets for takeoff under hot and high conditions from airports such as Khartoum and Nairobi. These were tested on 30 flights, but the Ghosts were apparently powerful enough without them. The later Comet 4 was highly rated for its takeoff performance from high altitude locations such as Mexico City. Its newer AJ.65 Avon engines, low weight (compared to the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8), and exceptionally clean design all contributed to its high performance. Early-model Comets required about five or six man-hours of maintenance labour per flight hour, fewer than the propeller-driven planes it replaced.
The Comet's thin metal skin was composed of advanced new alloys (Directorate of Technical Development 564/L.73 and DTD 746C/L90) and was both chemically bonded using the adhesive Redux and riveted, which saved weight and reduced the risk of fatigue cracks spreading from the rivets. When it went into service with BOAC on 2 May 1952, the Comet was the most exhaustively tested airliner in history. For example, a water tank was used to test the entire forward fuselage section for metal fatigue by repeatedly pressurising to 2.75 psi overpressure (11 psi) and depressurising through more than 16,000 cycles, equivalent to about 40,000 hours of airline service. The windows were tested under a pressure of 12 psi, 4.75 psi above the normal service ceiling of 36,000' (10973 m). One window frame survived a massive 100 psi, about 1,250% over the maximum pressure it would encounter in service.

Boieng 2707

Boieng 2707
The Boeing 2707 was developed as the first American supersonic transport (SST). After winning a competition for a government-funded contract to build an American SST, Boeing began development at its facilities in Seattle, Washington. Rising costs, the lack of a clear market, and increasing outcry over the environmental effects of the aircraft—notably sonic boom—led to its cancellation in 1971 before two prototypes had been completed.
Refining the design A Boeing Co. mock-up of a single aisle narrow body Pan Am B2707 cabin.The -390 would have been an advanced aircraft even if it had been only subsonic. It was one of the earliest wide-body designs, using a 2-3-2 row seating arrangement in a fuselage that was considerably wider than aircraft then in service. The SST mock-up included both overhead storage for smaller items with restraining nets, as well as large drop-in bins between sections of the aircraft. In the main 247-seat tourist-class cabin, the entertainment system consisted of retractable televisions placed between every sixth row in the overhead storage. In the 30-seat first-class area, every pair of seats included smaller televisions in a console between the seats. Windows were only 6" due to the high altitudes the aircraft flew at maximizing the pressure on them, but the internal pane was 12" to give an illusion of size.
Boeing predicted that if the go-ahead were given, construction of the SST prototypes would begin in early 1967 and the first flight could be made in early 1970. Production aircraft could start being built in early 1969, with the flight testing in late 1972 and certification by mid-1974.
A major change in the design came when Boeing added canards behind the nose—which added weight. Boeing also faced insurmountable weight problems due to the swing-wing mechanism. In October 1968, the company was finally forced to abandon the variable geometry wing. The Boeing team fell back on a tailed delta wing—somewhat in irony given that the rejected Lockheed design had a fixed wing. The new design was also smaller, seating 234, and known as the Model 2707-300. Work began on a full-sized mock-up and two prototypes in September 1969, now two years behind schedule.
A promotional film claimed that airlines would soon pay back the federal investment in the project, and it was projected that SSTs would dominate the skies with subsonic jumbo jets (such as Boeing's own 747) being only a passing intermediate fad.
[edit] Mounting opposition
[edit] Environmental concernsBy this point, the opposition to the project was becoming increasingly vocal. Environmentalists were the most influential group, voicing concerns about possible depletion of the ozone layer due to the high altitude flights[citation needed], and about noise at airports and from sonic booms. The latter became the most significant rallying point, and supersonic flight over land in the United States was eventually banned.
The project suffered political opposition from the left, which disliked the government subsidizing the development of a commercial aircraft to be used by private enterprise. The anti-SST campaign was led by Democratic Senator William Proxmire (D-Wisconsin), who saw the campaign as a crusade against unnecessary spending by the federal government.

Douglas DC-9

Douglas DC-9

The McDonnell Douglas DC-9 (initially known as the Douglas DC-9) is a twin-engine, single-aisle jet airliner. It was first manufactured in 1965 with its first flight later that year. The DC-9 was designed for frequent, short flights. The final DC-9 was delivered in October 1982.
The DC-9 was followed in subsequent modified forms by the MD-80, MD-90 and Boeing 717. As of May 23, 2006, with the final two deliveries of the 717, production of the DC-9 aircraft family has ceased after 41 years.
Design and developmentDouglas launched the DC-9 development project in April 1963, intending the DC-9 as a short-range companion to their larger four engined DC-8.[1] Unlike the competing but slightly larger Boeing 727, which used as many 707 components as possible, the DC-9 was an all-new design. The DC-9 features two rear fuselage-mounted Pratt & Whitney JT8D turbofan engines, small, highly efficient wings, and a T-tail. In most configurations, DC-9 aircraft have distinctive 5-abreast seating in coach class. The airplane seats 80 to 135 passengers depending on version and seating arrangement.
The DC-9 prototype first flew in February 1965. The second DC-9 flew a few weeks later and entered service with Delta Air Lines in late 1965. The initial -10 variant would be followed by subsequent growth variants. The final DC-9 variant was the -50, which first flew in 1974. The DC-9 would be a commercial success with 976 built when the production ended in 1982.
The DC-9 would be followed by the introduction of the MD-80 series in 1980. The MD-80 series was originally called DC-9-80 series and was a lengthened DC-9-50 with a higher maximum take-off weight (MTOW) and higher fuel capacity. The MD-80 series was then developed into the MD-90 in the early 1990s. The last variant of the family was the MD-95, which was renamed the Boeing 717-200 after McDonnell Douglas's merger with Boeing in 1997 and before aircraft deliveries began.
The DC-9 is one of the longest-lasting aircraft in operation. Northwest Airlines still operates a fleet of DC-9 aircraft, most of which are over 30 years old. The DC-9's reputation for reliability and efficiency drove strong sales well into the 2000s. The DC-9 family is one of the most successful jet airliners with a total of over 2,400 units produced; it ranks third behind the second place Airbus A320 family with over 3,000 produced, and the first place Boeing 737 with over 5,000 produced

Douglas DC-3

Douglas DC-3

The Douglas DC-3 is a fixed-wing, propeller-driven aircraft whose speed and range revolutionized air transport in the 1930s and 1940s. Because of its lasting impact on the airline industry and World War II, it is generally regarded as one of the most significant transport aircraft ever made.
Specifications (DC-3) Highly modified DC-3, powered by two Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6-65AR engines, now operated by the National Test Pilot School. Formerly operated by South Africa as a maritime patrol aircraft. Airframe has been modified with belly radar pod and chin FLIR turret. Based at Mojave Airport Cockpit of DC3 operated by FAA to verify operation of navaids (VORs & NDBs) along federal airways.General characteristicsCrew: 2 Capacity: 21-32 passengers Length: 64 ft 5 in (19.7 m) Wingspan: 95 ft 0 in (29.0 m) Height: 16 ft 11 in (5.16 m) Wing area: 987 ft² (91.7 m²) Empty weight: 18,300 lb (8,300 kg) Loaded weight: 25,200 lb (25,346 with deicing boots, 26,900 in some freight versions) (11,400 kg) Powerplant: 2× Wright Cyclone 9 R-1820 series (earliest aircraft) or Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp S1C3G in the C-47 and later civilian aircraft, 1,100 or 1,200 hp (890 kW) max rating, depending upon engine and model (895 kW) each Propellers: 3-bladed Hamilton Standard 23E50 series hydraulically controlled constant speed, feathering
PerformanceMaximum speed: 237 mph (206 knots, 381 km/h (=Never Exceed Speed (VNE), or Redline speed)) Cruise speed: 150 mph (130 knots, 240 km/h) Range: 1,025 mi (890 nm, 1,650 km) Service ceiling 24,000 ft (7,300 m) Rate of climb: 1,130 ft/min (5.73 m/s) initial Wing loading: 25.5 lb/ft² (125 kg/m²) Power/mass: 0.0952 hp/lb (157 W/kg)

Airbus A320

Airbus A320

The Airbus A320 family of short- to medium-range commercial passenger airliners are manufactured by Airbus. Family members include the A318, A319, A320, and A321, as well as the ACJ business jet.
First delivered in 1988, the A320 pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire flight control systems in a commercial aircraft. With more than 3,000 aircraft of the A320 family built, it is the second best-selling jet airliner family of all time after the family's primary competition, the Boeing 737.

Airbus A330

Airbus A330

The Airbus A330 is a large-capacity, wide-body, medium-to-long-range commercial passenger airliner. It was developed at the same time as the four-engined Airbus A340, and will likely be replaced by the Airbus A350.
Airbus intended the A330 to compete directly in the ETOPS (Extended-range Twin-engine Operation Performance Standards) market, specifically with the Boeing 767.
The A330's fuselage and wings are virtually identical to those of the smaller A340 variants, although it has different engines. The A330 basic fuselage design is inherited from the Airbus A300, as is the nose/cockpit section and the fly-by-wire system and flightdeck from the A320. Both the A330 and A340 are assembled on the same final assembly line at Toulouse-Blagnac, France.
By the end of December 2007, a total of 870 A330s had been ordered and 515 delivered.

Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde supersonic transport (SST)

Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde supersonic transport

The Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde supersonic transport (SST) was the more successful of the only two supersonic passenger airliners to have ever operated commercially, the Tupolev Tu-144 being the other.
The development programme was a product of an Anglo-French government treaty, with 20 aircraft built. The costly development phase thus represented a substantial economic loss. Air France and British Airways were subsidised by their governments to buy the aircraft.
First flown in 1969, piloted by Andre Turcat,[2] Concorde service commenced in 1976 and continued for 27 years. It flew regular transatlantic flights from London Heathrow (British Airways) and Paris Charles de Gaulle (Air France) to New York JFK and Washington Dulles, flying these routes at record speeds, in under half the time of other airliners. Concorde also set many other records, including the official FAI "Westbound Around The World" and "Eastbound Around the World" world air speed records.
As a result of the type's only crash on 25 July 2000, world economic effects arising from the 9/11 attacks, and other factors, operations ceased on 24 October 2003. The last "retirement" flight occurred on 26 November that year
Concorde remains an icon of aviation history, and has acquired an unusual nomenclature for an aircraft. In common usage in the United Kingdom, the type is known as "Concorde" rather than "the Concorde" or "a Concorde".

Airbus A340

Airbus A340

The Airbus A340 is a long-range four-engined widebody commercial passenger airliner manufactured by Airbus, a subsidiary of EADS. It seats between 261 and 380 passengers, and has a range between 6,700 and 9,000 nmi. It is similar in design to the twin-engined A330. Initial A340 versions share the fuselage and wing of the A330 while later models are longer and have larger wings.
The A340 was launched in June 1987 as a long-range complement to the short-range A320 and the medium-range A300. At the time, Airbus's twinjets were at a disadvantage against aircraft such as the Boeing 747 because of the ETOPS problem as defined by the then-current regulations: two-engined aircraft had to stay within 60 minutes' flying distance of a suitable diversion airport, which prevented them from competing on long overwater routes. Furthermore, the existing ETOPS immune widebodies in the 250-300 seat range, the trijet DC-10 and L-1011, were aging, as they had been in service since the early 1970's. The A340 was designed in parallel with the twin-engined A330: both aircraft share the same wing and similar fuselage structure, and borrow heavily from the advanced avionics and composite structure technology developed for the A320.
Both the A330 and A340 are assembled on the same final assembly line at Toulouse-Blagnac, France. The four-engined A340 is able to fly long over-water routes. Because of its ETOPS-immunity, Virgin Atlantic Airways used the motto "4 Engines 4 Long Haul," on its A340 fleet.
Kuwait Airways Airbus A340-300 taking-offThe A340 was originally intended to use the new superfan engines of IAE (International Aero Engines) in the A340 but IAE decided to stop their development. The engine nacelles of the superfan engine consisted of provisions to allow a large fan near the rear of the engine. As a result of the superfan cancellation by IAE, the CFMI CFM56-5C4 was used as the sole engine choice instead of being an alternate choice as originally envisioned. The longer-range versions, the A340-500 and -600, are powered by Rolls-Royce Trent 500 engines.
When the A340 first flew in 1991, engineers noticed that the wings were not strong enough to carry the outboard engines at cruising speed without warping and fluttering. To alleviate this, an underwing bulge called a plastron was developed to correct airflow problems around the engine pylons and to add stiffness. The modified A340 began commercial service in 1993 with Lufthansa and Air France.
The A340 incorporates high-technology features such as fully digital fly-by-wire flight control system. It also uses a sidestick controller instead of normal control columns. There is one joystick to the left of the pilot and one to the right of the co-pilot. The A340's flight deck is highly similar to the A320's, and employs a common pilot rating with the A330. This enables A330/A340 flightcrews to fly A320's and vice-versa with minimal extra training. This saves costs for airlines that operate both aircraft families. The cockpit also features CRT-based glass cockpit displays on the A340-200 and A340-300 and LCD-based on -500 and -600. Some composite primary structures are also used.
A340-600 at the Farnborough Air Show, 2006.With the introduction of higher gross weight Boeing 777s such as the 777-200ER and specifically 777-300ER, sales of the A340 began to decline. Over the last few years the 777 has outsold the A340 by a wide margin. Although the larger GE90 engines on the 777-300ER burn considerably more fuel than the Trent 500s, using only two of them compared to four Trents has meant a typical operating cost advantage of around 8-10%.
In January 2006, Airbus announced plans to develop an enhanced version of the A340, dubbed the A340E, where E stands for enhanced. Airbus claims that the enhanced A340E will be more fuel-efficient than earlier A340s and close the 8-10% disparity (range of the 18,000 km [ A340E-500HGW - with Trent 1500 engines ]*) and allow the model to compete more effectively with the Boeing 777-200LR. This would allow the Qantas for schedule direct Sydney to London-Heathrow flights***. However, due to ongoing production problems with the A380 and other internal challenges, it appears (as of October 2007) that the A340 E program is at a standstill. Airbus has predicted that it will probably produce 127 A340 units through 2016, after which production will cease.
[edit] VariantsThere are four variants of the A340 and launched on two separate occasions. The A340-200 and A340-300 were launched in 1987 with introduction into service in March 1993. The A340-500 and A340-600 were launched in 1997 with introduction into service in 2002.
[edit] A340-200One of two initial versions of the A340, the A340-200, with 261 passengers in a three-class cabin layout has a range of 7,450 nautical miles (13,800 km). This is the shortest version of the type and the only version with wingspan measuring greater than the length of the plane. It is powered by four CFMI CFM56-5C4 engines. The plane's range was one of the longest of the time and it was intended to open long and thin routes, especially over water.
One version of this type was ordered by the Sultan of Brunei requesting for a non-stop range of 8,000 nautical miles (14820 km). This A340-8000 had an increased fuel capacity, a MTOW of 275 tonnes similar to the A340-300, and minor reinforcements to the undercarriage. Upon completion its final range was specified at 8,100 nautical miles (15,000 km). It is powered by the 34,000 lbf (151 kN) thrust CFMI CFM56-5C4s similar to the -300E.
Other A340-200s were later given performance improvement packages (PIPs) which helped them achieve similar gains in capability as to the A340-8000. Those aircraft are labeled A340-213X. The range for this version is 8,000 NM (14,820 km).

Airbus A380

Airbus A380

The Airbus A380 is a double-deck, wide-body, four-engine airliner manufactured by the European corporation Airbus, an EADS subsidiary. The largest passenger airliner in the world, the A380 made its maiden flight on 27 April 2005 from Toulouse, France, and made its first commercial flight on 25 October 2007 from Singapore to Sydney with Singapore Airlines. The aircraft was known as the Airbus A3XX during much of its development phase, but the nickname Superjumbo has since become associated with it.
The A380's upper deck extends along the entire length of the fuselage. This allows for a cabin with 50% more floor space than the next-largest airliner, the Boeing 747-400, and provides seating for 525 people in standard three-class configuration or up to 853 people in all economy class configuration. The A380 is offered in passenger and freighter versions. The A380-800, the passenger model, is the largest passenger airliner in the world, superseding the Boeing 747, but has a shorter fuselage than the Airbus A340-600 which is Airbus' next biggest passenger aeroplane. The A380-800F, the freighter model, is offered as one of the largest freight aircraft, with a listed payload capacity exceeded only by the Antonov An-225. The A380-800 has a design range of 15,200 kilometres (8,200 nmi), sufficient to fly from New York to Hong Kong for example, and a cruising speed of Mach 0.85 (about 900 km/h or 560 mph at cruise altitude).

Boeing 707

Boeing 707

The Boeing 707 is an American four-engine commercial passenger jet airliner developed by Boeing in the early 1950s. Its name is most commonly spoken as "Seven Oh Seven". Boeing delivered a total of 1,010 Boeing 707s, which dominated passenger air transport in the 1960s and remained common through the 1970s. As of October 2006, 68 Boeing 707 aircraft (of any variant) were reported to be remaining in airline service, with just two airlines flying passengers, Saha Airlines of Iran and LADE Airlines of Argentina.[citation needed] Boeing also offered a smaller, faster version of the aircraft that was marketed as the Boeing 720.
Although it was not the first commercial jet in service (that distinction belongs to the De Havilland Comet), the 707 was the first to be commercially successful, and is credited as ushering in the Jet Age. It established Boeing as one of the largest makers of passenger aircraft, and led to the later series of aircraft with "7x7" designations.

Boeing 717

Boeing 717

The Boeing 717 is an American twin-engine, single-aisle jet airliner, developed for the 100-seat market. The airliner was designed by McDonnell Douglas as the MD-95, a third-generation derivative of the DC-9, which was first introduced in 1965. After McDonnell Douglas and Boeing merged in 1997, the airliner was redesignated Boeing 717 and produced by Boeing's Commercial Airplane division.
The model took its first order in October 1995 and entered service in September 1999. Production ceased in May 2006 after 156 airplanes were produced, ending a long history of commercial aircraft assembly at the former Douglas facility in Long Beach, California.

Airbus Beluga

Airbus Beluga

The Airbus A300-600ST (Super Transporter) or Beluga is a version of the standard A300-600 wide-body airliner modified to carry aircraft parts and over-sized or awkward cargo. It was officially called the Super Transporter at first, but the name Beluga became popular and has now been officially adopted.
Several major aircraft manufacturers are multinational, and it is not unusual for them to have plants in widely separated locations. Airbus, however, is unique in that it was a consortium formed by the major French, British, German, and Spanish aerospace companies, and the geographic location of Airbus manufacturing is not merely a matter of cost and convenience, it is also a matter of history, national interest and pride. In consequence, each of the Airbus partners makes an entire aircraft section, which needs to be transported to a central location for final assembly. The details vary from one model to another, but the general arrangement is for the wings to be made in the UK, the tail in Spain, the fuselage in Germany, and the nose and center-section in France; all being assembled in either Toulouse, France or Hamburg, Germany.
Super Guppy F-BPPAWhen Airbus started in 1970, the first few components were delivered by road, but growing production soon necessitated a switch to air transport. From 1972 onwards, a fleet of four highly modified "Super Guppies" took over. These were former Boeing Stratocruisers from the 1940s, converted with custom fuselages and turbine engines to carry large volume loads for the 1960s NASA space program, leading to the jibe that 'every Airbus is delivered on the wings of a Boeing'. As time went by, the Super Guppies grew increasingly unsatisfactory for Airbus's ferrying needs: their age meant that operating expenses were high and ever-increasing, and growing Airbus production required greater capacity.
Airbus Beluga in flightIn 1991 Aérospatiale and DASA, two of the major Airbus partners, formed a company to develop a replacement. The starting point was the design for the wide-body twin-engined Airbus A300: the wings, engines, landing gear, and the lower part of the fuselage are the same as the A300 while the upper part of the fuselage is an enormous horseshoe-shaped structure 7.7 m (25.3 ft) in diameter. To provide access to the cargo area from the front without having to disconnect all electrical, hydraulic and flight control connections (not to mention the lengthy recalibrations before each flight the reconnection entailed), the standard A300 cockpit was moved down below the cargo floor level and a 17 m (55.8 ft)-high cargo door fitted. Finally, the tail structure was enlarged and strengthened to maintain directional stability.
Airbus Beluga in old colors with other planes in the background giving an idea of its massive scaleConstruction began in September 1992, and the first flight took place in September 1994. After 335 hours of test flying, certification was awarded in September 1995, and the A300-600ST "Beluga" entered service. Four more Belugas were constructed, at a rate of roughly one per year, and all five remain in regular service. Their primary task is to carry Airbus components ready for final assembly across Europe to Toulouse or Hamburg, but they are also available for charter work, and have been used to carry a variety of special loads, including space station components, large, very delicate artwork, industrial machinery, and entire helicopters. (One Beluga was chartered to carry two complete NHI NH90s and a Eurocopter Tiger from Europe to Australia and back). The A300-600ST's freight compartment is 7.4 m (24.3 ft)in diameter and 37.7 m (123.7 ft) long; maximum payload is 47 tons. At 153.9 tons its maximum take-off weight is comparable to a normal A300, showing that the Beluga was intended for large but relatively light cargo.